Historically, the trend in energy use indicates a slow transition from fuels
with high carbon content, beginning with wood, to fuels with more hydrogen.
Fossil fuels release varying quantities of carbon dioxide into the
atmosphere — coal having the highest carbon content, then petroleum, and
finally natural gas — the lowest carbon dioxide emitter per thermal unit.
Hydrogen obviously releases no carbon dioxide emissions when burned.
Hydrogen (H
2) is the most abundant element in the universe, although
practically all of it is found in combination with other elements, for example,
water (H
2O), or fossil fuels such as natural gas (CH
4). Therefore,
hydrogen must be manufactured from either fossil fuels or water before it
can be used as a fuel. Today, approximately 95% of all hydrogen is produced
by “steam reforming” of natural gas, the most energy-efficient, large-scale
method of production. Carbon dioxide (CO
2) is a by-product of this
reaction.
CH
4 + 2H2O ------- 4H
2 + CO
2
Hydrogen can also be produced by gasification of carbon containing materials
such as coal — although this method also produces large amounts of
carbon dioxide as a by-product. Electrolysis of water generates hydrogen
and oxygen.
H
2O -------- H
2 + 1/2O
2
The electricity required to electrolyze the water could be generated from
either fossil fuel combustion or from renewable sources such as hydropower,
solar energy or wind energy. In the longer term, hydrogen
generation could be based on photobiological or photochemical methods.
While there is an existing manufacturing, distribution, and storage infrastructure
of hydrogen, it is limited. An expanded system would be required if
hydrogen fuel were to be used for automotive and utility applications.
Hydrogen production and supply
Hydrogen can be produced from different energy sources: fossil based and
renewable with various production technologies. Hydrogen is the common
denominator of many energy sources.
There’s no risk that we’ll ever run out of hydrogen, it's by far the most plentiful element in the universe. On Earth, however, it exists naturally only in chemical compounds, not as hydrogen gas. Water and the main components of coal, oil and natural gas are prime examples of these compounds.
Natural gas currently provides most of the hydrogen used in industry. The relatively simple technology employed – steam reforming – could also produce hydrogen gas for cars at central plants or filling stations. Alternatively fuel tanks could be filled with petrol or methanol, with the cars using on-board ‘reformers’ to generate hydrogen for their fuel cells. This shows promise as a transitional measure while research proceeds on the problems of storing hydrogen.
In steam reforming the hydrocarbon fuel reacts with water at high temperatures to produce hydrogen gas. A major drawback is that carbon dioxide and smog-causing gases such as nitrogen oxides are given off too, although emissions per kilometre of car travel would be less than from petrol-burning vehicles.
An alternative approach now under development, autoreforming, should increase the attractiveness of on-board hydrogen production. Use of a catalyst will allow the reforming to occur at much lower temperatures – too low for the production of nitrogen oxides.
Water is the only potentially pollution-free source of hydrogen. Researchers are looking at new ways of producing hydrogen – using algae, bacteria or photovoltaic cells to absorb sunlight and split water into hydrogen and oxygen. But the technology most likely to be adopted on a large scale is electrolysis, which uses an electric current to split water into oxygen and hydrogen.
The current production of hydrogen is 500 billion m
3/year, equivalent to 3.3
million barrels of oil per day. This again is equivalent to 10% of the energy
currently used in transportation. Hydrogen is mostly made by partial oxidation or
steam reforming of oil, natural gas steam reforming, methanol reforming and
water electrolysis. But the production possibilities are diverse, even modified
algae can produce hydrogen.
Production of hydrogen is relatively simple compared to processes to make
conventional fuels. As a consequence, nobody will be able to control the supply
of hydrogen. Hydrogen may create a freedom in the use of energy for
transportation, in a similar way that internet made mass communication available
to anyone with a PC and a phone line.
How is hydrogen produced with electrolysis?
In water electrolysis the water
molecules are split into hydrogen
and oxygen gases. These gases
are produced when an electric
current flows through an
electrolyte from an anode to a
cathode. The electrolyte is water
mixed with a substance to
optimize electrical conductivity.
The produced hydrogen and
oxygen gases are separated, purified, compressed and stored in gas bottle
battery banks or storage vessels.
Our future hydrogen society
Hydrogen is an energy carrier. It
means it can store energy. Thus it is
particular suitable in renewable
energy systems.
The surplus wind energy or solar
energy produced under good
conditions can be used to produce
hydrogen with electricity.
The use of hydrogen in renewable
systems will be especially useful in
areas with access to abundant
renewable energy resources, with
problems producing enough electricity
or with insufficient infrastructure.
Recent technological advances, particularly in fuel cell design, have made hydrogen-powered cars a practical proposition, and car makers expect to start mass-producing them within the next decade or so. Their power and acceleration should match those of today’s petrol-powered vehicles, but they may have to be refuelled more often.
The best ways to produce, distribute and store the hydrogen still have to be sorted out. In the short term fossil fuels may remain in demand as a hydrogen source. However, the idea that in the not too distant future most of us will be driving non-polluting cars fuelled by hydrogen from a clean, renewable source is no longer a flight of fantasy.
The hydrogen-fueled engine has been identified as a viable power unit for ultra-low emission series-hybrid vehicles. The
Wankel engine is particularly well suited to the use of hydrogen fuel, since its design minimizes most of the combustion difficulties.
By operating with very lean mixtures, which effectively derates the engine, very low NO{sub x} emissions can be achieved. Since
the rotary engine has a characteristically high power to weight ratio and a small volume per unit power compared to the
piston engine, operating a rotary engine on hydrogen and derating the power output could yield an engine with extremely low
emissions which still has weight and volume characteristics comparable to a gasoline-fueled piston engine. Finally, since engine
weight and volume affect vehicle design, and consequently in-use vehicle power requirements, those factors, as well as engine
efficiency, must be taken into account in evaluating overall hybrid vehicle efficiency.
Hydrogen is widely regarded as a promising transportation fuel because it is clean, abundant, and renewable. In a gaseous state,
it is colorless, odorless, and non-toxic. When hydrogen is combusted with oxygen, it forms water as the by-product. Due to
hydrogen’s high flammability range, it can be completely combusted over a wide range of air/fuel ratios. Unlike gasoline,
which if combusted outside its optimal air/fuel ratio will produce excess carbon monoxide (CO) and hydrocarbons (HC), hydrogen
does not have a carbon element and therefore will not produce those toxic gases. Like gasoline however, when hydrogen is
combusted in air (mixture of oxygen and nitrogen) the temperature of combustion can cause the formation of the nitric oxidizes
(NOx). Hydrogen however has an advantage over gasoline in this area because it can be combusted using very high air/fuel ratios.
Using a high air/fuel ratio (i.e. combusting hydrogen with more air than is theoretically required) causes the combustion
temperature to drop dramatically and thus causes a reduction in the formation of NOx. Unfortunately, the use of excess air
also lowers the power output of the engine.
Hydrogen has many advantages as a fuel for vehicles, but a big disadvantage is that it is difficult to store. This is because at normal temperatures hydrogen is a gas. The hydrogen must be packed tightly into a car’s tank, otherwise a filling stop will be needed every few kilometres.
The obvious solution is to strongly compress the hydrogen, or liquefy it. However, large amounts of energy are needed for this – an estimated 20–40 per cent of the energy content of the fuel. Also, tanks designed to hold hydrogen at extremely high pressures, or at temperatures approaching absolute zero, are heavy and expensive.
High cost and the large amount of energy needed to liquefy the fuel are likely to be the main problems with refuelling with liquid hydrogen. Filling up with compressed hydrogen gas will probably prove more practical, even though it may reduce the distance between fills. Cars could store the hydrogen in high pressure tanks similar to those used for compressed natural gas. Or, if current research proves successful, some high-tech alternatives could be employed.
Scientists have found that various metals can absorb up to a thousand times their own volume of hydrogen gas. Specially treated carbon may also hold large amounts. These discoveries could shape the fuel tanks of the future.
Hydrogen-powered vehicles
Of course, hydrogen-powered vehicles will need hydrogen. That is another problem. Most commercial hydrogen is made as part of the processing of natural gas. As a fuel it is about 20 percent more expensive than a comparable amount of gasoline.
You need about 15 pounds of hydrogen to go 300 miles. That doesn't sound like much, but hydrogen is very
light, and takes a very big tank!
Gaseous hydrogen could be pumped into a vehicle's tank in five minutes using compressors, according to studies. Another
problem with hydrogen is that since it is such a simple molecule it can easily leak through cracks and seals. There may be a safety risk. But we use gasoline in our cars and natural gas in our kitchens. The key wil be to design
safe systems to handle the hydrogen.
Hydrogen can also come in liquid and solid forms, that require less space, and do not leak as readily, but each has drawbacks
in the ease of handling and cost of refueling.
Hydrogen plays a significant role in the world’s energy economy, but this role is almost exclusively as a chemical; hydrogen is rarely
used as a fuel. The use of hydrogen as a fuel in the utility and transportation sectors faces hurdles that need to be overcome in order
to transition to a hydrogen energy economy. In addition to a lack of infrastructure to support the widespread distribution and use of
hydrogen, there exists a persistent perception that hydrogen is unsafe. Widespread hydrogen use will require that safety be intrinsic
to all processes and systems. To develop a hydrogen infrastructure that has the public’s confidence in its safety and convenience, an
industry consensus on safety issues is required. This includes the development of compatible standards and formats (e.g., the same
couplings for dispensing the same form of fuel). Product certification protocols are also required. The development of codes and
standards for the safe use of hydrogen is an essential aspect of Earth Government.
The development and promulgation of codes and
standards are essential if hydrogen is to become a
significant energy carrier and fuel. Codes and
standards are critical to establishing a marketreceptive
environment for commercializing
hydrogen-based products and systems.
The Global Community
recognizes the need for
legislation in
support of hydrogen
production, storage,
utilization, safety, codes
and standards and
education.
The Global Community is involved in a range of activities with regards to safety and codes and standards to assure the safe development
and deployment of hydrogen technologies. The main thrusts of these activities are to:
1. Develop and implement operating protocols that ensure safety in the production, handling, transportation, and public use of hydrogen during hydrogen research, development, testing, and demonstration programs.
2. Facilitate creation and adoption of model building codes, transportation and handling safety standards, and equipment standards for hydrogen and fuel cell systems in commercial, residential, and transportation applications.
3. Provide technical resource coordination to facilitate harmonization and development of international codes and standards.
Earth Government regulations on the transportation and use of hydrogen are rules or orders intended to promote safety,
compatibility, and efficiency.
4. Safety
Hydrogen's safety, like that of gasoline and diesel, is a function of engineering and safe practice. Hydrogen's safety has been shown to be on par with the current system (or other fuels) when the proper regulations, codes and standards, and best practices are followed. In fact, its properties have similarities to those of other gaseous fuels such as natural gas and town gas—a coal product that has supplied heating and lighting in America and Europe since the early 1800's.
Ensuring the safe use of hydrogen as a common fuel is of paramount importance for a successful transition to a hydrogen economy. All fuels inherently possess a degree of danger due to their high energy content. Safe use of hydrogen fuel requires preventing volatile combinations of the three combustion factors–ignition source (spark or heat), oxidant (air), and fuel. Through a thorough understanding of fuel properties, hydrogen fuel systems can be designed with appropriate engineering controls and guidelines to ensure safe handling and use. Even so, new safety practices and sensors will be needed to provide additional safety checks and backup prevention mechanisms to ensure the safe handling of hydrogen as a major transportation fuel. This is particularly true given the large quantity of hydrogen that will be needed and because high pressurization will be required in the early stages. For this purpose, the Hydrogen Fuel Initiative is working with other stakeholders in an aggressive program to develop appropriate safety procedures and to achieve consensus on codes and standards for hydrogen production, storage, distribution, and use.
Safety is also achieved through testing, certification, and establishment of comprehensive safety assessments based on hydrogen site plans. Typically, a hydrogen safety site plan includes analyses of hydrogen confinement, the potential for ignition, the need for detectors and odorants, a broad safety analysis, review of site-specific factors, and methods to mitigate adverse consequences.
5. Codes and Standards
Codes and equipment standards can help to overcome industrial barriers to commercialization and facilitate public acceptance of new hydrogen technologies. Codes and standards are needed in a number of areas including for the vehicle and vehicle-infrastructure such as pipelines. Codes and standards provide a systematic and accurate means for measuring and communicating product risk and insurability to the customer, the general public, and fire-safety certification officials.
Standards are a set of technical definitions, guidelines, and instructions for designers and manufacturers. These standards are typically
voluntary, but have been agreed upon to ensure consistency, compatibility, and safety. Developing a standard is a consensus process
involving a number of experts in the field. Once developed, standards are usually incorporated into codes that, in turn, must be adopted
by Member Nations of Earth Government and local jurisdictions to become legal and binding. Optimally, new codes and standards should be developed in advance of
hydrogen fuel systems.
6. Regulations
Throughout the world, nations have established laws or regulations that require that products and/or systems being developed are safe
and do not impose unnecessary risks to the user and to public safety. The foci of Earth Government activities with regards to regulations are
to:
a) Develop and implement operating protocols and a regulatory framework that ensure safety in the production, handling, transportation, and public use of hydrogen during hydrogen research, development, testing and demonstration programs.
b) Facilitate creation or amendment of transportation, vehicle and equipment, disposal, handling, and workplace safety standards (regulations) for hydrogen and fuel cell systems in commercial and transportation applications.
c) Develop in advance and enforce hydrogen safety regulations in all aspects of hydrogen production, handling, transportation, and public use that protect public safety as hydrogen products reach the deployment and commercialization stages.
Hydrogen Research and Development
Earth Government shall:
(a) conduct a hydrogen research and development program relating to production, storage, transportation, and use
of hydrogen, with the goal of enabling the private sector to demonstrate the technical feasibility of using hydrogen for industrial,
residential, transportation, and utility applications.
(b) In conducting the program authorized by this section, Earth Government shall
(1) give particular attention to developing an understanding and resolution of critical technical issues preventing the introduction of
hydrogen into the marketplace; and
(2) initiate or accelerate existing research in critical technical issues that will contribute to the development of more economic
hydrogen production and use, including, but not limited to, critical technical issues with respect to production (giving priority to
those production techniques that use renewable energy resources as their primary source of energy for hydrogen production), liquefaction,
transmission, distribution, storage, and use (including use of hydrogen in surface transportation).
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