INTRODUCTION

The principle of systems differentiation is one of the "new" principles coming from modern neuro-physiology, psychology and pedagogics. This principle expresses an extremely important law of both education and mental development of a child and has a strong substantiation in the scientific and pedagogical literature. We will consider the contents and opportunities of applying the principle of systems differentiation to solve general and particular questions of ecological education.

BACKGROUND AND MODERN INTERPRETATION OF THE PROBLEM

The objectivity of the principle of systems differentiation was proved in the works of neuro-physiologists I. Sechenov (Sechenov, 1953) and N. Chuprikova (Chuprikova, 1997), psycho-linguist A. Potebnya (Potebnya, 1989), psychologists Jean Piaget (1969) and L. Vygotsky (Vygotsky, 1960, 1991), etc.

According to Sechenov, the child's learning of the external world always begins with the break-down of some panorama of sensual images nondismembered previously. And this process is organically connected with the occurrence of the child's first words-concepts. Following the child's social maturing and the enrichment of his vocabulary this nonbreak-downed and generalized panorama of images gradually becomes more and more dismembered, more differentiated into separate structural elements making the whole panorama. In the basis of this process there is a splitting into separate parts of the originally integral pshychological reality. The principle of systems differentiation determines this process (Sechenov, 1953).

These components gradually link with the signs of the language, i.e. words, and become carriers of the elements of thoughts. They are separated from the real world and thus receive an opportunity of free functioning in various acts of mental activity and thinking as a whole (Sechenov, 1953). The prominent psycho-linguist A. Potebnya emphasizes that the child's cognition always goes from the whole to the parts by means of systems differentiation of the wholeness. Potebnya specifies that the development of any child'd idea begins with the decomposition of primarily integral and generalized sensual images by means of speech. This is some wholeness in which a subject, its properties, the child's actions and his attitudes to this subject are organically merged. In the process of speech they are divided from each other, differentiated and they act as independent realities. Such a differentiation is a necessary condition to form simultaneously the child's primary concepts and his intellectual development as a whole (Potebnya, 1989).

Considering the development of the child as the process of his organic maturing J. Piaget marks that the child's first knowledge about his environment always represents syncretic formation ("schemes", "scenarios", etc.) in which everything is in a disorderly heap being nondifferentiated. Emphasizing that the child always thinks by schemes of wholeness, marking that these schemes give him a quite correct notion about occurring events and facts, the psychologist specially stipulates the fact that the schemes used by the child do not yet allow him to decompose the whole into details and particular components.

In these schemes, i.e. integral cognitive systems everything is always merged in one system. And only in the course of the child's development (socialisation) these schemes are becoming more and more differentiated. It makes possible the progress of the child in his general and intellectual development (Piaget, 1969).

Leo Vygotsky considering thinking as the highest psychological function writes that the development is organically connected with the occurrence of words - concepts. He emphasizes that the intellectual development of the child is determined not so much by the level of the development of particular functions, but by interfunctional connections between them. Each separate highest psychological function, each functional component in the development of consciousness depends on a change of the whole, but not vice versa. The outstanding psychologist believes that the first attitudes of the child to his environment always have a nondifferentated character.

Vygotsky writes that every relationship between a child and environment is always reflected through his or her nearest adults. According to Vygotsky, of particular importance is the "child-mother" relationship which underlies all the child's other interactions (Vygotsky,1960,1991).

Between a child and the nature there is a world of human culture consisting of scientific knowledge, everyday concepts, behaviour models, social norms, rules, ideas and myths. In the process of his or her development a child masters these social norms and transfers them onto nature. In this process the most essential role is played by ethical concepts.

The relationship between a child and nature is not a simple one. The "child-social world" interaction is fundamental. The "child-nature" interaction is in relation to this secondary and transferred (Karopa, 1993,1994,1995,1996,1998).

Many authors think that everywhere where there is any process of development (formation of scientific concepts, forming the responsible attitude toward environment, etc.) it goes by way of consistently deeping differentiation. Thus the systems differentiation is a scientific fact and one of major laws of the intellectual development of the child (Butler,1970; Chyprikova,1997; Davydov,1986; Galperin,1976; Karopa,1994,1995; Levin,1998; Piaget,1969; Potebnya,1989; Sechenov,1953; Vygotsky,1960,1991).

However many questions arise in this connection and in this context. What namely is developed in the child with age and education? What namely is the internal substratum which under the influence of many social and biological factors is changed, transformed and turned into a qualitatively new state forming a basis for further development?

According to Chuprikova, the inner cognitive structures, i.e. certain inner stable systems of representation of knowledge in the broad meaning of the word are such developing substrata. At the same time they are the psychological systems of extraction and keeping of the current information (Chuprikova, 1997).

The systems of the representation of knowledge represent original "crystalized" matrixes of reception and extraction of all knowledge about the environment, about the person's place and role in this environment, etc. The information from the environmental world is taken and used by the individual only in that volume and in such form as his cognitive structures allow him to do it. It is extremely important to define the contents of the concept "cognitive structures" (Chyprikova,1997).

From the psychological point of view cognitive structures are rather stable systems of dynamic processes of analysis, synthesis, integration, etc. (Bruner, 1960; Chyprikova,1997; Davydov,1986; Vygotsky, 1960,1991; Piajet, 1969).

The cognitine structures are developing on the basis of the work of analysers. They realize the inborn opportunities of the child's development. The fact that cognitive structures are developing is essentially important for both the theory and practice of education. The development of cognitive structures in ontogenesis goes through their progressive complication in accordance with the principle of systems differentiation. This principle reads that more advanced and highly ordered cognitive structures are developing only from more simple and diffusional structures through their gradual differentiation.

The differentiation of cognitive structures is quite a repeated and indefinite psychological process. For this reason neuro-physiologists describe it in the form of a tree with a branching crown (Chuprikova, 1997). The main condition for the development of cognitive structures is the presence of the highly advanced ability for abstract thinking. The driving force in the development of this ability is the sign-speech signal system. Speech and speech activity carry out the functions of the leading factors in splitting the individual sensual experience. Speech and speech activity are key tools of systems differentiation of cognitive structures.

The psychological mechanisms of splitting the sensual experience are words - or, to be more precise, - concepts. The words-concepts are linked with different objects of the external world by means of mechanisms of temporary link. They are also linked with separate parts, properties and interrelations of the objects. The basic mechanism of binding words - concepts together with objects is differentiation of spatial-temporary systems of excitation.

As a result of such splitting a person lives in a logically ordered and strictly differentiated world. In this world his own existence is precisely separated from external and internal influences. The surrounding objects are characterized by their essential specific properties, attitudes and locations. Due to such differentation causes are separated from consequences, real from seeming, rational from irrational, etc. It is possible to say that the ordered world of the person is a consequence of the complex work of sense-perceptional and verbal systems of the brain during the acts of the reflection of the reality.

The development of the brain also goes from diffusional and little differentiated forms to more and more specialized and discretic forms. Thus, the systems differentiation is not only the leading neuro-physiological mechanism, but also a necessary condition for the mental and general development of the child.

These conclusions are essentially important for the theory and practice of ecological education. They can be a foundation for designing the contents of ecological education, for selecting its forms and methods, for working out textbooks and manuals, for forming the students' responsible attitude towards nature, for creating the system of ecological education as a whole. We will consider some questions of applying the principle of systems differentiation to solve particular problems of ecological education in modern secondary schools and universities.

BASIC REQUIREMENTS OF THE PRINCIPLE OF SYSTEMS DIFFERENTIATION

The most important requirements of the principle of systems differentiation in the ecological education are:

1. The teaching of ecology should begin with the students' acquiring of the knowledge having a generalized and theoretical character. More specific knowledge including different kind of empirical knowledge must be deduced from theoretical knowledge as a unified basis.
It is necessary already on initial stages of teaching and forming the students' responsible attitude towards nature to show the system of ecological ideas and in this connection to introduce the most important scientific, ecological and moral-ecological concepts into the students' thinking. Certainly, such a concentrated introduction of ideas and concepts does not yet provide their good mastering. However it gives the students an integral and essentially correct notion about the object under consideration, about its state and problems. It provides an excellent basis for future differentiation and forming the studends' responsible attitude towards nature.

Due to this approach some generalized mental models are formed in students' thinking. Then they will stage by stage be differentiated and certain particular knowledge will be deducated from them. The empirical knowledge and specific examples will be introduced in this context. In this approach the teaching of ecology is a process of differentiating general, theoretical and abstract knowledge and further deducing from this theorethical knowledge some individual, particular, specific and empirical cases and examples.

2. The teaching of ecology should be directed at revealing and disclosing some general correlations determining the contents and structure of modern ecology.

The bright examples of such general correlations in the contents of modern ecology are: "ecological system", "integrity of ecological systems ", "ecological balance", "ecological interaction", "development of ecological systems", "ecological problem", etc. These correlations have essentially abstract character and represent certain difficulties for students' understanding. These abstract concepts should be reproduced (embodied) by the pupils themselves in specific sign-symbolical or graphic models which make it possible to analyse the correlations.

Modelling allowing to separate significant from insignificant and variable from invariable is so important in the teaching of ecology that it can be considered as one of the principles of ecological education. The teaching of ecology should be based on defining and mastering similar theoretical correlations.

In other words, the teaching of ecology based on the principle of systems differentiation should be oriented not to mastering isolated pieces of information (as it usually takes place in modern teaching practice), but to disclosing the principles of ecology, understanding the system of ecological laws, to revealing numerous interrelations between different natural and social factors.

The leading role in the process of teaching belongs to theory, principles and laws. Different facts and empirical data must be used in the way necessary for disclosing, realizing and mastering initial ecological correlations and theory as a whole.

This approach does not underestimate the importance of practical and field work. It requires that practical work be organized on the basis of this or that correlation, law or theory previously realized.

3. Knowledge should be acquired by students when they analyse the objective conditions of its origin.

In the teaching of ecology it is necessary to widely apply a historical approach to explain the objective necessity of the occurrence and development of this or that scientific theory, to show its role and importance in the investigation of different phenomena. Special attention should be paid to practical applications of theory.

4. The teaching of ecology should provide not only mastering by the students of some basic theoretical knowledge, but also special skills to concretize these rules by empirical knowledge. This assumes to use mental transitions from general to particular and from particular to general. In other words, the revealed general correlation should be repeatedly concretized by the facts and examples from the students' practical activities.

The concretization of the initial correlation and further generalization of its results lead to the formation of the students' personal principles of explaining and understanding the reality.
The students' personal models of ecologically competent behaviour in natural environment can be formed only on the basis of these generalized principles. A more effective formation of ecologically competent behaviour may be promoted by special exercises, practical work and nature protection activities.

THREE STAGES IN THE PROCESS OF ECOLOGICAL EDUCATION

The teaching of ecology based on the principle of systems differentiation is always a process of solving more and more complicated educational tasks. This process includes three main stages (structural components):

1) introduction-motivation stage;
2) working stage;
3) evaluation stage.

These structural components must take place in every teaching process as a whole as well as in both conducting lessons and in other forms of in-door and out-door activities. The basic unit in such teaching is an educational theme but not a lesson. The lesson does not always reflect all three stages of the effective teaching process.

We will consider in detail the contents of each component and basic requirements of the principle of systems differentiation.

1. The introduction-motivation stage provides general understanding of the essence, contents and structure of the theme to be investigated. It is to define the place of the theme in the structure of ecological science and the effect the students will get in the result of mastering it. All this makes a good foundation for all further educational activities and provides an appropriate motivation. On this stage the teacher generally explains the essence of a new correlation, organizes a more differentiated study of theoretical knowledge.

Then the students' cognitive activity is organized as a process of solving more and more complicated educational tasks.

2. Working stage is devoted to studying the contents of the theme, mastering a general correlation, its further concretization and differentiation, mastering new mental and practical skills, allowing consciously to use theoretical knowledge for solving a certain problem.

In order to master the correlation students must solve a number of particular tasks. At the beginning frontal work can be organized. In this context such methods as illustrative explanation, demonstration of models and examples, etc. can be used. Then different forms of group and individual work should be used.

Sometimes it is very useful to begin the study of a new theme from the presentation of any sensual material. However studying any theoretical material (for example- correlation or law) it is recommended to present it in abstract, schematic form. This way (from general to particular) should be a priority in the teaching of ecology and forming the students' responsible attitude towards nature. Obviously, in the contents of modern ecological education gereral theoretical knowledge prevails, and it requires significant differentiation

On this stage different kind of models (graphic, logic, sign-symbolical , etc.) should be widely used. The theoretical investigation of the problem with the help of models creates an excellent basis for practical exercises and further activities. The way from theoretical investigations to practical activities lies through the systems differentiation.

3. The evaluation stage provides the synthesis of the acquired knowledge, skills, new mental and practical activities. Here the students correlate their results with both the tasks previously planned and reality. They analyze the work they have done, find out the knowledge and skills they have acquired, the mistakes they have made and the ways to avoid them in the future. On the basis of systems analysis and self-analysis students evaluate their activities and acquire additional motivation for future self-education.

The important tasks of this stage are the development of the students' reflexional activity. Reflexion is the process and the result of investigating some personal studies, i.e. it is self-analysis, understanding one's own emotional-mental conditions and states. It is quite necessary for any good educational process. It develops the students' qualities which determine their responsible attitude towards nature. In this context this stage may be defined as reflexional.

In the teaching of ecology all three stages we have considered must take place. The inroduction-motivation stage is absolutely necessary, because without it students can not make a generalized correct concept about the object and realize the correlation. Obviously, without it the students' activities will be blind and nonrealized. For this reason such activities will not promote the development of the person and the formation of the responsible attitude towards nature. Namely this stage determines in the first turn the success of any pedagogical activity.

The importance of the working stage is quite obvious and does not require any special substantiation. Moreover, without this stage any educational process including the teaching of ecology cannot be carried out at all. Without the evaluation stage, i.e. without the systems analysis and self-analysis the process of teaching will never be quite effective. Only the whole complex of three components in the teaching of ecology may ensure achieving the goals.

BASIC APPROACHES TO WORKING OUT EDUCATION PROGRAMMES

Following the principle of systems differentiation it is possible to propose some basic approaches to working out the educational programmes in ecology: The first approach consists in constructing and disclosing the system of main ecological ideas forming the whole ecological knowledge (for example- the idea about the unity of man, society and nature, the idea about the development of society and nature, the idea about the necessity to improve the interactions between man and nature, etc).

This approach requires to introduce new ecological concepts, notions and facts related to the contents of ideas. The technology of the educational process must be always determined by logic and laws of the students' cognitive activity.

The disclosing of ecological ideas by means of concepts, notions and facts promotes the formation of theoretical thinking and mastering the programme material. It also removes the necessity to remember large volumes of information. In turn it considerably reduces the load on the students' memory. This approach can also serve to more rational integration of ecological, geographical, biological, ethical, etc. knowledge. In this context this approach may be characterized as the willingness to teach many things through a few ones.

The second approach consists in working out the programmes on the basis of conceptional structure of ecology as a science. In such programmes the scientific concepts are structured and transferred onto real ecological problems and situations. A very important moment here is finding the extreme wide ("universal") concept embodying in itself a number of narrower concepts. In the teaching of ecology the function of the basic concept "ecosystem" can be successfully carried out. It is also possible to use the concept "biosphere" in this way.

During introductory lessons the generalized system of interdependent concepts allows the students to see the whole before its components, to make further differentiation of basic concepts, to realize the importance of the responsible attitude towards nature.

The important requirement for such programmes is the conformity of the logic and structure of ecology as a subject to the logic and structure of ecology as a science.

The third approach provides acquainting the students with basic paradigms of modern ecology. Good examples of ecological paradigms are the socio-historically determined interaction between man and nature, the state of environment and ecological monitoring, the development of global urbanization and prospects of mankind, food problems and basic ways of their solution, the global warming and world community, etc. This approach may be very useful for working out effective supplementary ecological courses which provide good opportunities for more advanced and deeper studies of one or several topics of modern ecological science.

The fourth approach assumes deep studying of the most important ecological problems of the Earth, separate continents, countries and regions, native places, etc. It may also allow to reveal the most important causes of modern ecological crises. A very important component of such programs is considering possible ways of overcoming ecological crises, involving students into real nature protection activities.

In programs of this type some ecological knowledge, ecological ideas, scientific and moral-ecological concepts, notions, laws, facts, etc. are considered in the context of certain territory (for example - the Earth, a continent, a country, a region, a district, etc.). Three levels of considering ecological problems should be always strictly taken into account: global, regional (national) and local. They form within themselves a certain hierarchical system.

According to the principle of systems differentiation the consideration of ecological problems should begin with the study of global ecological crises and their basic causes. Primary studying of the global problems will allow the students to realize deeper the common to all mankind character of modern ecological crises, to reconstruct their earlier acquired everyday concepts about norms of interaction between man and nature on the basis of ecology as a science. All this is very important for a good teaching of ecology and forming the students' responsible attitude to nature and ecological thinking as a whole.

The fifth approach consists in primary acquainting of the students with the methods of modern ecological researches and involving the students in direct practical nature protection activities. In programs of this type the methods of ecological researches are considered as cristalised knowledge ready for its practical application. In this way the methods are certain tools for solving various ecological problems.

The main task of the programs of this type is the organization of laboratory and practical work, field ecological work, ecological camps, expeditions, different kinds of nature protection activities, etc.

These programs do not at all deny the importance of the scientific theory. All kinds of researches and practical nature protection activities should be organized on the basis of some general principles, theoretical correlations, laws, etc. previously realized and mastered. Here theory always precedes practical activities. However the results of practical activities confirm, concretize and make deeper the previously realized general theoretical correlation, principle, law, etc. The sixth approach to working out the educational programs is to provide acquainting students with the basic historical periods in the interactions between man and nature from the moment the first human communities appeared to the prospects of such interractions in the future. This approach can be defined as eco-historical. Its most important feature is disclosing by the students of the contradictory character of the interaction betweem man and nature in different historical epochs. It requires to analyse the essence and causes of contradictions, to show in the historical context the basic results of investigating nature, to convince the students in the necessity of the responsible attitude towards nature.

The programs of this type assume that ecological knowledge should be combined with ethical and moral-ecological norms, rules of ecological ethics, major philosophical and ecological doctrines. As a whole such programs have a humanitarian character and are strictly oriented to the formation of the students' careful, responsible attitude towards nature.

CONCLUSION

The above considered approaches do not exhaust all types of educational programs used in the teaching of ecology. There may be a lot of other decisions. At the same time it is necessary to note that working out of educational programs requires the use of different approaches. An example of the program combining various approaches is the course "Ecology" for secondary schools. It was worked out by the participants of eco-educational project "Green Class"(Man and Nature, 1997).

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